Intermediate
How Computer I/O Works: Buses, DMA, GPUs, Multicore CPUs, and SoCs
Learn how CPUs communicate with devices through memory-mapped I/O, interrupts, DMA, PCIe, multicore systems, GPUs, and modern system-on-chip designs.
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Intermediate
How a CPU Executes Instructions: The Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle
Follow the fetch-decode-execute cycle step by step and learn how the program counter, registers, ALU, control unit, cache, and write-back stages execute machine code.
Intermediate
Computer Memory Hierarchy: Registers, Cache, RAM, and Virtual Memory
Learn how the computer memory hierarchy works, including CPU registers, L1/L2/L3 cache, RAM, SSDs, virtual memory, TLBs, and page faults.
Intermediate
How the CPU Control Unit Works: Instruction Decoding and Microcode
Learn how a CPU control unit works, from instruction decoding and control signals to hardwired logic, microcode, timing, and the fetch-decode-execute cycle.
Intermediate
How an ALU Works: Build a 1-Bit Arithmetic Logic Unit
Learn how an ALU works inside a CPU using logic gates, adders, two's-complement subtraction, multiplexers, control signals, and status flags.
Intermediate
How Logic Gates Work: Build an 8-Bit Binary Adder and Memory Circuit
Learn how logic gates work, build half-adders and full-adders, create an 8-bit ripple-carry adder, and understand latches, flip-flops, and memory.
Intermediate
How Transistors Work: Semiconductors, Doping, and MOSFETs Explained
Learn how transistors work inside CPUs, from silicon and semiconductor doping to N-type, P-type, MOSFET channels, binary logic, and transistor history.